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In my family we have always said “Gesundheit!” in response to a sneeze, and it occurred to me to wonder how far back that went. The OED takes it back to 1914 (Everybody’s Feb. 484 ‘Saved your life,’ he murmured mechanically, as one suffixes ‘Gesundheit’ to a sneeze), but the entry is from 1972, and I figured I could antedate it with Google Books. But a search limited to 1800-1913 turned up only references to German uses. 1890:

Oh! the sneezing that year in Germany. The upper ten thousand sneezed (Genesung!); the middle hundred thousand sneezed (Gesundheit!), and the lower thousand thousand sneezed (Helf Gott!)

1893:

people often wish good health to the person sneezing: Ihre Gesundheit ! or Gesundheit ! or (less respectfully) wohl bekomm’s ! or prōsit !

1903:

A German sneezes with all his might, and if there is a compatriot within hearing he says, ‘Gesundheit.’

1912:

Few of us realize when we say “God bless us”, or “Gesundheit” in German, when a person sneezes, that it is the evolution of an old superstition

So 1914 would seem to be at least close to the origin of the use in English; the question is why did it become so widespread when World War I put paid to so many items of German influence? You’d think anyone who said “Gesundheit” during the war would have gotten the “kaiser-lover” treatment and desisted forthwith.

Also, I discovered the Wikipedia article Response to sneezing, which is full of interesting things — not least that in Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean, “nothing is generally said after a sneeze except for when expressing concern when the person is sick from a cold or otherwise.” Areal feature!

Last year I posted about the Oxford Dictionary of African American English (ODAAE); now Sandra E. Garcia reports for the NY Times (archived) on how it’s coming along:

The researchers say they aim to publish a first batch of 1,000 definitions — some words and phrases will have more than one — by March 2025. But the more important goal of the project, which will be edited by Henry Louis Gates Jr., a scholar of African American history at Harvard University, is to underscore the significance of African American English and to create a resource for future research into Black speech, history and culture. […]

To support their etymological claims, researchers and editors from Oxford Languages and the Harvard University Hutchins Center for African & African American Research have drawn on lyrics from jazz, hip-hop, blues and R&B as well as letters, diaries, newspaper and magazine articles, Black Twitter, slave narratives and abolitionist writings. Individual entries will be explained using quotations pulled from Black literature, including examples from Zora Neale Hurston, Langston Hughes, Ralph Ellison, Toni Morrison and Martin Luther King Jr. […]

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Indian linguist Anvita Abbi writes for Scientific American (June 2023; archived) about the Great Andamanese languages she has been studying, and a fascinating group of languages it is:

When I first met Nao Jr., at the turn of the millennium, he was in his 40s and one of only nine members of his Indigenous group, Great Andamanese, who still spoke the idiom of his ancestors; the youngsters preferred Hindi. As a linguist with a passion for decoding structure, I had researched more than 80 Indian languages from five different families: Indo-European (to which Hindi belongs), Dravidian, Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman and Tai-Kadai. I was on the islands to document their Indigenous voices before they faded into whispers. What little I heard was so baffling that I returned many times in later years to try to pin down the principles undergirding Great Andamanese languages. […]

Great Andamanese, it turns out, is exceptional among the world’s languages in its anthropocentrism. It uses categories derived from the human body to describe abstract concepts such as spatial orientation and relations between objects. To be sure, in English we might say things like “the room faces the bay,” “the chair leg broke” and “she heads the firm.” But in Great Andamanese such descriptions take an extreme form, with morphemes, or meaningful sound segments, that designate different zones of the body getting attached to nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs—indeed, to every part of speech—to make diverse meanings. Because no other known language has a grammar based on the human body or shares cognates—words that are similar in meaning and pronunciation, indicating a genealogical connection—with Great Andamanese, the language constitutes its own family. […]

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Last November, Larry Yudelson at the Jewish Standard reported on an interesting find:

Back in 2005, Avihai Shivtiel, a researcher in the Cairo Genizah archives at Cambridge University, published an account of a page found in the Genizah with a list of words written in Judeo-Arabic and Judeo-Romance — the latter being the language once known as Latin as it evolved toward some dialect of what we now call Spanish, but written in Hebrew letters. The list includes word pairs such as “lachem” — Arabic for meat — and “carne,” Spanish for meat. […]

Recently, José Martínez Delgado of the University of Granada looked at the Judeo-Romance word list. He realized, as he told the Genizah Fragments blog, “I had seen this handwriting before.” He sent the image to a friend, who confirmed his impression: “We were looking at Maimonides’ handwriting. “We were able to confirm this by gathering other examples of Maimonides writing the same words that appear in this fragment, and it’s clear that it’s him.”

So does that mean Maimonides spoke Spanish? First, he said, “We cannot be sure it’s Spanish – it is some sort of Romance dialect, but from where? Aragon? Valencia? Catalonia? We don’t know yet. And second, if anything, this is an indication that Maimonides did not speak a Romance dialect. The words are simple – bread, water, meat, egg. These are basic words, and it seems like he was trying to acquire them. He wrote out his list of words and then filled them underneath as he learned the translation. Some categories of terms are not fully translated.”

There’s an interview with Martínez Delgado at the Genizah Fragments blog with more details (and close-up photos). Thanks, RC!

I found this on Facebook and of course couldn’t resist filling it out; it helps further linguistic science and exposes me to lots of terms I didn’t know about (e.g., topinambour for ‘Jerusalem artichoke’). Warning: it takes quite a while (approximately 200 questions) and is sometimes irritating (it’s not clear why for some you have to check one answer and for others you can choose several). There are some items/actions that are unfamiliar to me (“What do you call the action of drinking water without touching your mouth to the bottle?”) and some questions that are controversial, either linguistically (“How do you pronounce ‘forte’”?) or culturally (“What kind of animals does a ‘vegetarian’ eat?”). Of LH note: “samara” was one of the choices for ‘maple key.’ Of course, I’m not sure they’ll even be able to use my responses, because of this question and response:

Do you feel that there are any other features of your dialect or dialect acquisition that need mentioning? If so, write about your dialect acquisition or history here:

My father was from the Ozarks (E Oklahoma, NW Arkansas), my mother from a Norwegian-American community in E Iowa; he went into the foreign service, so I grew up abroad with friends of many nationalities. I moved to the US for college in Los Angeles, went to grad school in New Haven, moved to New York City, and currently live in Western Massachusetts.

Do I even have a dialect? Anyway, if you feel like giving it a go, click the link.

Danny L. Bate (a linguist who did his master’s on the history and development of complementizers and complement clauses in Indo-European) asks What did British Latin sound like?:

The transition from Roman Britain to Medieval Britain is a fascinating historical, archaeological and linguistic puzzle. The fifth, sixth and seventh centuries AD in Britain are like a black box, into which we put a well-integrated region of the Roman Empire, and out of which emerges a patchwork of new kingdoms, cultures and languages. Explaining the workings of this change on the basis of the available evidence is a challenge that continues to keep historians very busy, and keeps me up at night.

One opinion I, as a linguist, hold is that by the end of the official Roman administration of Britain (c. 410 AD), Latin had become a common language of the population of Britain. This is to say, at least in the south of what is now England, Latin had become the majority mother tongue of the population, just as it had on the Continent. I disagree with the alternative view that the Romans brought Latin to Britain and then took it all home with them, leaving the barbarian Britons none the wiser. Elsewhere, Latin would over time produce the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Catalan, Italian and so on). However, in Britain, popular Latin was not to endure, since the incoming Angles and Saxons would upset the linguistic lie of the land. […]

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Philologos, “the renowned Jewish-language columnist” (as the Mosaic sideline bio calls him), has featured at LH for almost two decades now (back in 2004 his column was at the Forward); his new piece The Wheels of Jewish Language in the New Netflix Show “Rough Diamonds” (archived) makes it sound like a must-see for those of a Hattic bent (though of course you would want to see the original, not the dubbed version):

After Israeli television’s Shtisel [LH] and Netflix’s Unorthodox, we now have, already rising in the rating charts, another Netflix production, Rough Diamonds […], a newly premiered, eight-part Israeli-Belgian co-production set in Antwerp, for centuries a center of diamond trading and polishing in which Jews have always played a major role […].

Rough Diamonds is about decisions, mostly bad ones, and about how, once made, they have irrevocable consequences. Yet one of the pleasures of watching it has to do with decisions that are less consequential and in a way not even decisions, since they are made continually and unconsciously on a daily basis: the choice of which of the four languages spoken by the show’s main characters—Yiddish, Flemish, French, and English—they use with whom. This linguistic interplay, which forms no small part of the show’s intricacy, is unfortunately lost to some American viewers, who, I hear, have to watch Rough Diamonds in a version dubbed in English. (I myself saw it in an Israeli version with the original voices and Hebrew subtitles.) If you are one of these viewers, this column may help you to appreciate what you have missed.

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We discussed the early medieval Avars in 2016 (lots of interesting genetic research in the thread); now I’ve discovered that there’s a nice fat book on them by Walter Pohl, The Avars: A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567–822, a 2018 revised translation of the 2015 third edition of Die Awaren. Ein Steppenvolk in Mitteleuropa 567 – 822 n. Chr. (Astonishingly, the translator does not appear to be named anywhere in the book; in the preface, Pohl says “Then the text was translated into English. I continued working on the basis of the translation and ended up introducing major revisions and updates.” This really will not do, and I cast a cold eye on both Pohl and Cornell University Press.) It’s a nice fat book (apparently the longest thing previously available in English was “a ninety-page article by H. H. Howorth in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society published in 1889″), and there’s a fair amount of Hattic material; I’ll share some excerpts. From chapter 1:

The historian of the Avars should not only gain a mastery over the Latin and Greek sources with all their nuances but must in addition deal in critical fashion with Iranian, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic, and Chinese texts, should be at home with Slavic, Hungarian, Turkic, and Mongolic linguistics and onomastics, be competent to interpret with caution the published and, to the greatest degree possible, unpublished findings of archaeologists, master the approaches and models of social anthropology, and, lastly, offer new insights into old problems discussed by colleagues in his own field.

It is no coincidence that one of the classics of steppe research is entitled Osteuropäische und ostasiatische Streifzüge (Rambles in eastern Europe and eastern Asia). It was not least the unsystematic and often excursive form of the work that enabled the author, Josef Marquart, at the turn of the twentieth century, to draw connecting lines between disciplines that may still be fruitfully pursued today. It was precisely these interdisciplinary ramblers who provided the decisive stimulus for the exploration of the nomadic peoples. In the second half of the nineteenth century the German Wilhelm Radloff made his way through the “Wild East” in the service of the Russian tsar. He collected an immense body of ethnographical and linguistic data, excavated caves from the Ice Age and kurgans or mounds from the Iron Age, undertook metallurgical investigations, and published his material in the form of a memoir “from Siberia.” Long before “interdisciplinary” became a vogue word in the humanities, frontier crossers such as Radloff and Marquart laid the foundations for research into the medieval steppes, combining archaeology and ethnography, linguistics and history.

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The prevalence of the French language in 19th-century Russia has been a frequent theme at LH (e.g., 2008, 2013, 2014, 2019), and Alessandra Tosi’s Waiting for Pushkin: Russian Fiction in the Reign of Alexander I (1801-1825) provides a good example — it has a whole section (III.2, p. 131ff.) on Zinaida Volkonskaya (one of the Volkonskys mentioned in the 2008 post), who wrote almost exclusively in French:

Zinaida Aleksandrovna Volkonskaia (1789-1862) is renowned as a grande dame of the Russian and European beau monde in the first half of the nineteenth century rather than for her literary exploits. Born into one of the most illustrious Russian families (her father was Prince Aleksander Mikhailovich Belozelsky-Belozersky, a leading diplomat during Catherine’s reign) Zinaida belonged to the Emperor Alexander’s entourage from an early age. After the death of her father, she was made to marry Prince Nikita Grigorevich Volkonskii, a member of the highest Russian aristocracy who was to serve as aide-de-camp of Alexander I. In 1808 the nineteen-year-old Zinaida became lady-in-waiting to the Dowager Empress Maria Fedorovna and for a time, during the Napoleonic wars, was romantically involved with the tsar himself, to whom she remained close until his death in 1825. Around this time Volkonskaia’s salon in Moscow became an important venue for writers and musicians alike. […]

Volkonskaia’s role in nineteenth-century European and Russian culture is now generally acknowledged thanks to the numerous biographical studies devoted to the “Queen of the Muses and beauty”, as Pushkin called her. What is still missing is a comprehensive study of Volkonskaia’s literary output that – apart from a few mentions in histories and dictionaries of Russian women writers and in the biographies devoted to her – has so far been overlooked. Yet Volkonskaia’s work deserves critical attention for at least three reasons: the high literary standard of her writing, the topical issues she addresses in the novels and stories, and her position as the leading Russian francophone writer of the age.

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Having finished Vladimir Sorokin’s 2017 novel Манарага [Manaraga], I find I don’t have much to say about it except that it’s enjoyable late Sorokin, focusing on a society of chefs who illegally prepare meals for rich clients by cooking over flames fueled by first-edition books and set in a mid-21st-century world that is more or less that of Day of the Oprichnik (LH). It takes the form of a diary written by the protagonist Geza, who specializes in Russian literature and winds up being sent on a mission to Mount Manaraga in the northern Urals; it’s full of the usual Sorokin tricks, like incorporated parodies and passages of nonsense; and towards the end I got whiffs of both Olesha’s Envy (LH) and Zamyatin’s We (LH). For more, I refer you to Lizok’s excellent post (which originally inspired me to add the novel to my reading list). Here I want to focus on a single paragraph, consisting entirely of the names of books. The context is one of the “book’n’grill” meals (that phrase is always in English in the original Russian text), served by sixty-nine chefs to a large wedding party; Sorokin lists all of the “logs” they use, “mainly 20th-century detective and horror novels” [в основном детективы и хоррор XX века], and here is my version using original languages (except for the Russian ones):

The Godfather, Der Richter und sein Henker, And Then There Were None, Rebecca, Dead Cert, Nothing Lasts Forever (Die Hard), The Executioners (Cape Fear), Gorky Park, Misery, Last Exit to Brooklyn, The Shining, Postmortem, Naked Lunch, Le Chien jaune, The Hellbound Heart (Hellraiser), Eye of the Needle, The Spy Who Came in From the Cold, A Time to Kill, The Sea-Wolf, The Exorcist, The Moonstone, Children of the Corn, The Maltese Falcon, Azazel, Smiley’s People, Bekenntnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull, “The Birds,” The Sound and the Fury, Les Trois Mousquetaires, Death Under Sail, The She-Wolf [Druon’s La Louve de France? Jerzy Gierałtowski’s Wadera?], La Reine Margot, Compartiment tueurs (The Sleeping Car Murders), Ascenseur pour l’échafaud, The Hound of the Baskervilles, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Le mystère de la chambre jaune, Red Harvest, Camera Obscura (Laughter in the Dark), Rosemary’s Baby, The Cry of the Owl, “Zigzags of Treachery,” The Silence of the Lambs, Our Man in Havana, Airport, Fletch, The English Patient, The Case of the Terrified Typist, 金閣寺 (The Temple of the Golden Pavilion), The First Circle, In the Heat of the Night, When the Sleeper Wakes, La Veuve Couderc, Crime and Punishment, Fletch, Too, The Adventures of Caleb Williams, Visages cachés, The Jackal [The Day of the Jackal?], Piège pour Cendrillon, The Vampire Chronicles, Being and Time, They Thirst, The Trial, The Doorbell Rang, An American Tragedy, The Sign of the Four, Devil in a Blue Dress, In Cold Blood, and Dead Souls.

The Russian original:
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